Tools We Use to Study the Brain

CAT scan (computer axial tomography) is an X-ray procedure that combines many X-ray images with the aid of a computer to generate cross-sectional views and, if needed, three-dimensional images of the internal organs and structures of the body. CAT scans are performed to analyze the internal structures of various parts of the body. 
Source: 
http://www.becomehealthynow.com/article/diagradiology/639/
http://www.medicinenet.com/cat_scan/article.htm


Structural Magnetic Resonance Image is a radiology technique that uses magnetism, radio waves, and a computer to produce images of body structures. An MRI scan can be used as an extremely accurate method of disease detection throughout the body and is most often used after the other testing fails to provide sufficient information to confirm a patient's diagnosis.
Source:
http://www.medicinenet.com/mri_scan/article.htm

Diffusion-Tensor MRI (DTI) is a method that provides a description of the diffusion of water through tissue, and can be used to highlight structural changes in tissue tracts. This form of MRI measures how water molecules diffuse through body tissues and it is used to diagnose conditions like stroke or disorders like multiple sclerosis. 
Source:
http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/psychiatry/research/neuroimaging/research_methods/diffusion_tensor.html
http://www.livescience.com/39074-what-is-an-mri.html

EEG (electroencephalograph) is a test that measures and records the electrical activity of your brain. An EEG is one of the main diagnostic tests for epilepsy and may also play a role in diagnosing other brain disorders.

Source:
http://www.webmd.com/epilepsy/electroencephalogram-eeg-21508
http://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/eeg/basics/definition/prc-20014093













PET Scan (Positron emission tomography)  is an imaging test that can help reveal how your tissues and organs are functioning. PET works by using a scanning device (a machine with a large hole at its center) to detect positrons (subatomic particles) emitted by a radionuclide in the organ or tissue being examined.
Source:
http://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/pet-scan/basics/definition/prc-20014301
http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/healthlibrary/test_procedures/neurological/positron_emission_tomography_pet_scan_92,P07654/


fMRI (functional MRI) is a technique for measuring brain activity. It works by detecting the changes in blood oxygenation and flow that occur in response to neural activity – when a brain area is more active it consumes more oxygen and to meet this increased demand blood flow increases to the active area and it can also be used to produce activation maps showing which parts of the brain are involved in a particular mental process.

Source:

http://psychcentral.com/lib/what-is-functional-magnetic-resonance-imaging-fmri/0001056

TMS (transcranial magnetic stimulation)  is a procedure that uses magnetic fields to stimulate nerve cells in the brain to improve symptoms of depression. TMS is a non-invasive method of brain stimulation that relies on electromagnetic induction using an insulated coil placed over the scalp, focused on an area of the brain thought to play a role in mood regulation; the coil generates brief magnetic pulses, which pass easily and painlessly through the skull and into the brain. 
Source:
http://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/transcranial-magnetic-stimulation/basics/definition/prc-20020555
http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/psychiatry/specialty_areas/brain_stimulation/tms/

Alzheimer's Disease

What is Alzheimer's Disease?
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-related, non-reversible brain disorder that develops over a period of years. Initially, people experience memory loss and confusion, which may be mistaken for the kinds of memory changes that are sometimes associated with normal aging. However, the symptoms of AD gradually lead to behavior and personality changes, a decline in cognitive abilities such as decision-making and language skills, and problems recognizing family and friends. This disease may lead to a severe loss of mental function. These losses are related to the worsening breakdown of the connections between certain neurons in the brain and their eventual death. It is one of a group of disorders called dementias that are characterized by cognitive and behavioral problems. It is the most common cause of dementia among people age 65 and older.

What Causes Alzheimer's Disease?
Scientists don’t yet fully understand what causes Alzheimer’s disease, but it has become increasingly clear that it develops because of a complex series of events that take place in the brain over a long period of time. It is likely that the causes include some mix of genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors. Because people differ in their genetic make-up and lifestyle, the importance of any one of these factors in increasing or decreasing the risk of developing Alzheimer’s may differ from person to person.

Treatments
Alzheimer’s disease is complex, and it is unlikely that any one intervention will be found to delay, prevent, or cure it. That’s why current approaches in treatment and research focus on several different aspects, including helping people maintain mental function, managing behavioral symptoms, and slowing or delaying the symptoms of disease.  Currently there are no medicines that can slow the progression of this disease. However, four FDA-approved medications are used to treat AD symptoms. These drugs help individuals carry out the activities of daily living by maintaining thinking, memory, or speaking skills. They can also help with some of the behavioral and personality changes associated with AD. However, they will not stop or reverse AD and appear to help individuals for only a few months to a few years. Donepezil (Aricept), rivastigmine (Exelon), and galantamine (Razadyne) are prescribed to treat mild to moderate AD symptoms. Donepezil was recently approved to treat severe AD as well. The newest AD medication is memantine (Namenda), which is prescribed to treat moderate to severe AD symptoms.

Diagnosing Patients with Alzheimer's Disease

Doctors will:

• Ask questions about overall health, past medical problems, ability to carry out daily activities, and changes in behavior and personality
• Conduct tests of memory, problem solving, attention, counting, and language
• Carry out standard medical tests, such as blood and urine tests, to identify other possible causes of the problem
• Perform brain scans, such as computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), to distinguish Alzheimer’s from other possible causes for symptoms, like stroke or tumor

Sources

http://www.nia.nih.gov/alzheimers/publication/alzheimers-disease-fact-sheet

http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/alzheimersdisease/alzheimersdisease.htm

Optometrist Career Information

Job Description

Optometrists provide primary vision care. They diagnose and treat eye diseases and disorders. They determine whether vision correction is needed and if it is they prescribe eyeglasses or contact lenses. Some optometrists specialize in a particular clientele or type of treatment. For example some treat patients with low vision and others provide post-operative care to patients who have undergone surgery. Other practitioners who provide vision care are ophthalmologists and opticians. Ophthalmologists are physicians who, unlike optometrists, can perform eye surgery. Opticians fit eyeglasses and make adjustments to them but do not examine eyes, make diagnoses or treat diseases and conditions.

Working Conditions

Optometrists work in settings (usually their own offices) that are clean, well-lit and 

comfortable. Most full-time optometrists work about 40 hours a week. Many work Saturdays 

and evenings to suit the needs of patients. Emergency calls, once uncommon, have 

increased with the passage of therapeutic drug laws expanding optometrists' ability to 

prescribe medications.

Education

Requirements for admission to schools of optometry include courses in English, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology. A few schools require or recommend courses in psychology, history, sociology, speech, or business. Applicants must take the Optometry Admissions Test, which measures academic ability and scientific comprehension. Most applicants take the test after their sophomore or junior year. Competition for admission is keen. Optometry programs include classroom and laboratory study of health and visual sciences, as well as clinical training in the diagnosis and treatment of eye disorders. Courses in pharmacology, optics, vision science, biochemistry, and systemic disease are included. The OD degree requires completion of a four-year program at an accredited optometry school, preceded by at least three years of undergraduate study at an accredited college or university. Most optometry students hold a baccalaureate or higher degree. 

Salary

Optometrists earned a median annual salary of $94,690 in 2011 and median hourly earnings of $45.53. Median annual earnings of salaried optometrists were $88,410 in May 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $63,840 and $118,320. Median annual earnings of salaried optometrists in May 2009 were $87,430 in offices of optometrists. Salaried optometrists tend to earn more initially than do optometrists who set up their own practices. In the long run, however, those in private practice usually earn more. According to the American Optometric Association, median net annual income for all optometrists, including the self-employed, was $114,000 in 2009. The middle 50 percent earned between $84,000 and $166,000.

Sources

http://explorehealthcareers.org/en/Career/11/Optometrist#Tab=Overview
http://careerplanning.about.com/od/occupations/p/optometrist.htm
http://www.schoolsoup.com/careers/career_info.php?career_id=68

Neurologist Career Info

Job Description

Neurology is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the nervous system. Neurologists are trained to diagnose, treat, and manage patients with neurological disorders.

They treat and diagnose adults with neurological disorders. Pediatric neurologists treat neurological disease in children. Neurologists may also be involved in clinical research, clinical trials, as well as basic research and translational research. Physicians and surgeons diagnose illnesses and prescribe and administer treatment for people suffering from injury or disease. Physicians examine patients, obtain medical histories, and order, perform, and interpret diagnostic tests. They counsel patients on diet, hygiene, and preventive health care.

Education Requirements

Since a neurologist is a type of physician, the training process is extensive and requires a medical degree (M.D. or D.O.) in addition to an undergraduate college degree:

• High school diploma
• 4-year undergraduate degree from university or college
• 4-year medical degree from accredited U.S. medical school (or foreign equivalent)
• 3 years of residency training in neurology

Premedical students must complete undergraduate work in physics, biology, mathematics, English, and inorganic and organic chemistry. Students also take courses in the humanities and the social sciences. Some students volunteer at local hospitals or clinics to gain practical experience in the health professions.

Working Environment

Neurologists usually work indoors in well lighted exam rooms and hospitals. Hours of work frequently exceed 60 hours a week in the busier practices. This typically can result in being awakened at all hours of the night and/or being asked to come in at irregular times to evaluate a patient. Typically a neurologist will work five days per week, plus on-call duties to handle patient emergencies. An average of about 40-50 hours per week is standard. On a full office day, a neurologist will see approximately 20-25 patients per day. Like most physicians, neurologists have about four to six weeks off for vacation annually, and they may have an additional week or two allowed off for CME coursework.

Salary

According to the Medical Group Management Association (MGMA) 2012 Compensation report, the average income for neurologists is $281,616, based on national averages. By region, neurologists earn the most in the South, with an average income there of $324,521 annually. By town size and population, neurologists in non-metropolitan areas with a population fewer than 50,000 earn the highest income on average, with a median income of $275,663, according to the MGMA physician compensation report.

Sources:

http://www.healthcaresalaryonline.com/neurologist-job-description.html

http://healthcareers.about.com/od/physiciancareers/p/How-To-Become-A-Neurologist.htm